Time allowed: 20 minutes
Number of questions: 40
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on the passage below.
A Colour influences human psychology in ways both subtle and profound. From the red that raises heart rates to the blue that promotes calm, colours shape our emotions, decisions, and behaviours in countless daily interactions. Understanding these effects has become increasingly important for fields ranging from interior design to marketing, healthcare to education. Yet the science of colour psychology remains more complex than popular accounts often suggest, involving interactions between biology, culture, and individual experience.
B The biological foundations of colour perception begin with the eye's cone cells, which contain three types of photoreceptors sensitive to different wavelengths of light. However, the psychological effects of colour extend far beyond simple perception. Research has demonstrated that exposure to red light increases physiological arousal, raising blood pressure and accelerating heart rate, while blue light produces the opposite effect. These responses appear to be hardwired rather than learned, as they occur even in infants too young to have developed cultural colour associations.
C Cultural factors significantly modify biological responses to colour. While red signals danger in many Western contexts, it represents good fortune and celebration in Chinese culture. White symbolises purity in Western wedding traditions but signifies mourning in many Asian societies. These cultural associations are learned through social experience and can override innate responses. Marketing research suggests that cultural colour meanings must be carefully considered when brands expand internationally, as a colour scheme that succeeds in one market may fail dramatically in another.
D The application of colour psychology in retail environments has been extensively studied. Research indicates that warm colours like red and orange can stimulate appetite and impulse purchasing, explaining their prevalence in fast-food restaurants and clearance sales signage. Cool colours like blue and green, by contrast, encourage longer browsing times and more deliberate decision-making, making them suitable for environments where customers benefit from extended consideration, such as financial services or luxury retail.
E Healthcare facilities have increasingly incorporated colour psychology principles. Studies suggest that certain shades of blue and green can reduce patient anxiety, while overly sterile white environments may actually increase stress. Paediatric hospitals often use bright, varied colours to create welcoming spaces for children, though research indicates that excessively stimulating environments can be counterproductive for patients with certain conditions. The challenge lies in balancing general principles with individual patient needs.
F Educational settings present another important application. Some research suggests that blue environments may enhance creative thinking, while red may improve attention to detail in tasks requiring precision. However, these findings have not been consistently replicated, and many colour psychology claims in educational contexts remain scientifically unsubstantiated. Teachers and administrators should approach colour-based interventions with appropriate scepticism, recognising that factors like lighting quality and overall design coherence may matter more than specific hue choices.
G Despite widespread commercial interest, colour psychology as a scientific field faces significant methodological challenges. Many popular claims derive from poorly controlled studies with small sample sizes. Effects that appear in laboratory settings often fail to replicate in real-world environments. Individual differences in colour preference and response are substantial, meaning that generalised recommendations may not apply to specific populations. Researchers increasingly advocate for more rigorous experimental designs and greater caution in extrapolating from limited evidence.
The reading passage has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
List of Headings
i. Limitations of current research
ii. Colour in commercial spaces
iii. The scope and significance of colour psychology
iv. Applications in medical environments
v. How culture shapes colour meaning
vi. Colour effects in learning environments
vii. The physical basis of colour response
viii. Future directions in colour research
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the passage?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on the passage below.
For decades, space travel remained the exclusive domain of government astronauts and a handful of exceptionally wealthy individuals. That era is ending. Multiple private companies are now developing commercial space tourism offerings, ranging from brief suborbital flights to extended stays at orbital space stations. While the industry remains in its infancy, projections suggest that space tourism could become a multi-billion dollar market within the coming decade, fundamentally altering humanity's relationship with the cosmos.
Suborbital flights represent the most accessible entry point to space tourism. Companies like Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic offer brief journeys that carry passengers above the Kármán line – the internationally recognised boundary of space at 100 kilometres altitude – allowing several minutes of weightlessness and views of Earth's curvature before returning to the surface. These flights last approximately 10-15 minutes total and currently cost between $250,000 and $450,000 per seat. Despite these substantial prices, both companies report extensive waiting lists, suggesting robust demand among high-net-worth individuals.
Orbital tourism presents a more ambitious proposition. SpaceX has announced plans to fly paying customers around the Moon and has already conducted the first all-civilian orbital mission in 2021. Axiom Space is developing a commercial space station module attached to the International Space Station, with future plans for a free-flying private station. Orbital experiences are dramatically more expensive than suborbital flights – Axiom's missions reportedly cost approximately $55 million per passenger – but offer much longer duration stays and more extensive space experiences.
The physiological challenges of space travel remain significant barriers to broader tourism participation. Even brief exposure to microgravity can cause space motion sickness, affecting roughly 60-80% of first-time space travellers. Longer stays risk muscle atrophy, bone density loss, and fluid redistribution that can affect vision. Current tourist offerings require medical screening, though requirements are less stringent than for professional astronauts. As the industry matures, companies will likely develop increasingly sophisticated protocols for managing these health risks across diverse customer populations.
Environmental concerns have emerged as a significant criticism of space tourism. Rocket launches release substantial quantities of black carbon directly into the upper atmosphere, where it may have disproportionate climate impacts compared to emissions at ground level. A 2022 study estimated that a fully developed space tourism industry could contribute meaningfully to stratospheric warming. Critics argue that enabling joyrides for billionaires while exacerbating climate change represents a troubling misallocation of technological capability. Industry advocates counter that space tourism drives innovation applicable to other sectors and that environmental impacts can be mitigated through cleaner propulsion technologies.
The regulatory framework for space tourism remains incomplete. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration oversees commercial spaceflight safety but currently operates under a "learning period" regulatory approach that limits its authority to impose comprehensive safety requirements on passengers. This framework, intended to allow the industry to develop without premature regulatory burden, expires in 2025. The transition to a more mature regulatory environment will significantly influence industry development, potentially improving safety standards while increasing compliance costs for operators.
Perhaps most fundamentally, space tourism may transform how humans conceptualise their place in the universe. Astronauts frequently report experiencing the "overview effect" – a cognitive shift in awareness upon seeing Earth from space that produces feelings of interconnectedness and concern for planetary wellbeing. If thousands or eventually millions of people experience this perspective firsthand, the cultural and perhaps political implications could be profound. Advocates suggest that democratising access to this experience could foster greater global cooperation on existential challenges like climate change.
The long-term trajectory of space tourism points toward increasingly ambitious offerings. Some companies envision space hotels, lunar surface visits, and eventually Mars expeditions. Whether these visions materialise depends on continued technological development, cost reduction, and sustained market demand. The industry's evolution over the coming decades will determine whether space tourism remains an exclusive luxury for the ultra-wealthy or becomes an experience accessible to broader segments of society.
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer?
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on the passage below.
A Insects are experiencing dramatic population declines worldwide, with potentially catastrophic implications for ecosystems and human food security. A landmark 2019 review of 73 studies found that over 40% of insect species are declining, with a third classified as endangered. The rate of extinction is eight times faster than that of mammals, birds, and reptiles. Some researchers have described the phenomenon as an "insect apocalypse," though others caution that data gaps make such sweeping characterisations premature.
B Perhaps the most comprehensive long-term data comes from Germany, where amateur entomologists have monitored flying insect populations in protected nature reserves since 1989. Their research, published in 2017, revealed a staggering 76% decline in total insect biomass over 27 years. The findings were particularly alarming because they came from protected areas – suggesting that even conservation efforts may be insufficient to halt declines. Similar patterns have been documented in Puerto Rico's tropical rainforests, British butterfly populations, and North American monarch migrations.
C The drivers of insect decline are multiple and interconnected. Habitat loss through agricultural intensification and urban expansion eliminates the diverse landscapes insects require. Pesticide use, particularly neonicotinoids that affect insect nervous systems, directly poisons target and non-target species alike. Climate change disrupts the timing of seasonal events, potentially decoupling insects from the plants they pollinate and the prey they consume. Light pollution interferes with navigation and reproduction in nocturnal species. These stressors rarely operate in isolation; their combined effects may be greater than the sum of their individual impacts.
D The ecological consequences of insect decline extend throughout food webs. Insects serve as the primary food source for many birds, bats, freshwater fish, and other animals. A 2018 study linked insectivorous bird population declines in North America directly to reduced insect availability. Decomposing insects break down dead plant material and animal waste, recycling nutrients essential for soil health. Dung beetles alone are estimated to save the US cattle industry $380 million annually through waste processing services.
E Pollination services provided by insects underpin global food production. Approximately 75% of crop species depend to some extent on animal pollination, primarily by bees but also by flies, butterflies, beetles, and other insects. The economic value of insect pollination has been estimated at $235-577 billion annually worldwide. Crops that depend heavily on insect pollination include almonds, apples, blueberries, cocoa, coffee, and tomatoes. Declines in pollinator populations could therefore threaten both agricultural productivity and dietary diversity.
F Not all insect groups are declining equally, and some may actually benefit from environmental changes. Certain pest species, freed from natural predators, are thriving. Mosquitoes carrying diseases like dengue and Zika are expanding their ranges as temperatures warm. Some generalist species adapt readily to human-modified landscapes, while specialists with narrow habitat requirements suffer disproportionately. Understanding these differential responses is crucial for predicting future ecosystem dynamics and developing targeted conservation strategies.
G Policy responses to insect decline have begun to emerge but remain inadequate to the scale of the problem. The European Union has restricted certain neonicotinoid pesticides, though implementation varies across member states. Some jurisdictions are creating pollinator protection plans and establishing wildflower corridors along transportation routes. Agricultural subsidy reforms that incentivise biodiversity-friendly practices show promise. However, addressing the full range of stressors affecting insects requires coordinated action across agriculture, urban planning, climate policy, and light pollution management – a level of integration that current governance structures rarely achieve.
H Public awareness of insect decline has grown substantially in recent years, potentially creating momentum for stronger protective measures. Citizen science initiatives engage thousands of volunteers in monitoring butterfly, bee, and beetle populations. Media coverage of "insect apocalypse" research has sparked popular concern. Yet insects remain largely undervalued relative to more charismatic wildlife, and mobilising political will for their protection faces significant challenges. The coming decade will likely determine whether current trends can be reversed before irreversible ecological damage occurs.
The passage has eight paragraphs, A-H.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-H.
Complete the summary below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.
Causes and Effects of Insect Decline
Multiple factors contribute to declining insect populations. The expansion of farming, known as 32 , destroys insect habitats. A type of pesticide called 33 damages insects' nervous systems. Artificial lighting affects 34 . The impacts on ecosystems are severe – insects provide food for many animals and are essential for recycling 35 in soil. Insects also support food production through 36 services worth hundreds of billions of dollars.
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Passage 1: --/13
Passage 2: --/13
Passage 3: --/14