Quantifiers, Linking & Written Conventions

Advanced accuracy in formal writing and cohesive speaking

You're working on advanced quantity expressions, linking ideas across longer texts, and the grammar differences between writing and speech so you can sound more formal in writing and flow better in conversation.

What Do You Already Know?

Before we dive in, let's see what's already in your head about these topics. Click each card to reveal the answer.

What's the difference between "all" and "all of"? When does each one work?
Pattern: "All" (no 'of') works before nouns: "All students passed." / "All of" works before pronouns or noun phrases: "All of us," "All of the data." Some nouns can go both ways: "All the time" or "All of the time."
You're writing an academic report. Would you use "loads of data" or "a great deal of data"? Why?
Formality shift: "Loads of" is informal speech. "A great deal of" is formal writing. Other formal equivalents: "a substantial amount of," "considerable," "significant."
What's a cohesive device? Name two types.
Cohesion = text flow across sentences. Types: (1) Reference pronouns (this, that, it, they), (2) Linking words (however, moreover, therefore), (3) Substitution (do so, one), (4) Repetition of key words.
Why would you use a semicolon instead of a full stop in writing?
Grammar + meaning: A semicolon joins two related independent clauses without a coordinating word. It shows they're closely connected: "The economy grew; unemployment fell." Stronger connection than a full stop.

Why This Matters

At B2+, you're writing emails, reports, and essays to native speakers. You're also speaking naturally with long explanations. This lesson bridges the gap: formal quantity expressions make your writing sound polished, linking patterns make your ideas flow, and knowing speech-vs-writing rules means you won't sound stiff when you talk.

Quantity Expressions: Formal & Academic

The Pattern

Quantity expressions sit on a formality scale. The same meaning shifts register depending on context.

  • Loads of / Tons of / Heaps of: Informal speech
  • A lot of: Neutral (speech & writing)
  • Plenty of: Slightly formal
  • A great deal of / A considerable amount of: Formal writing
  • A number of: Formal & countable only
INFORMALITY ←→ FORMALITY Loads of Lots ↓ A lot of Plenty of ↓ A great deal A number of ← Academic

Examples in Context

❌ Too Informal for an Essay
"The data showed loads of evidence that climate patterns are shifting."
✓ Formal & Professional
"The data showed a considerable amount of evidence that climate patterns are shifting."

When Countability Matters

Expression Countable? Example
Plenty of ✓ Both "Plenty of time / plenty of ideas"
A great deal of Uncountable "A great deal of evidence" (not "ideas")
A number of Countable only "A number of students" (not "information")
Whole / Entire Singular nouns "The whole team" / "The entire process"

Emphasising Completeness: Whole, Entire, All of

Same Meaning, Different Structures

Click to see all three in one sentence →
"The whole team worked, and I spoke to all of them about the entire project." All three convey completeness.

Whole vs. Entire: Nearly synonymous. "Entire" is slightly more formal. Use in academic writing.

"All of": Emphasises every single one. Works best before pronouns (all of us, all of them) or specific noun phrases (all of the data).

WHOLE / ENTIRE / ALL OF Whole meeting ← Adjective The entire day ← Adjective All of the day ← Prepositional "I attended the whole conference"

Common Mistakes

❌ Incorrect
"All of the team members attended" (too many prepositions; "the whole team" is tighter)
✓ Better
"The whole team attended" or "All of them attended"
SPEAK (3 mins)
Think of a recent experience—maybe a project, trip, or event. Describe it using at least two of these expressions: "a considerable amount of time," "the whole thing," "all of us." Speak naturally. Don't memorise—just explain what happened.
Time yourself. Pause after each sentence to check it sounds natural.

Cohesion & Linking Across Paragraphs

A B2 writer connects ideas so readers follow the flow. A B1 writer states each idea separately. This tab shows you the tools.

The Toolkit: 5 Cohesive Devices

1. Reference (Pronouns)
"This, that, it, they" point backwards to previous ideas.
"The company expanded into Asia. This move created new jobs." (This = the expansion)
2. Substitution
Replace a word with "one," "do," or "do so."
"She asked for a larger office. I didn't think they'd grant one." (one = office)
3. Linking Words (Connectors)
Show relationships: cause, contrast, addition, sequence.
"Sales fell. However, profit margins improved." (contrast)
4. Lexical Chains
Repeat key words or use related synonyms.
"The policy failed. These regulations were flawed." (policy ↔ regulations)
5. Ellipsis (Omission)
Leave out repeated words—the reader fills them in.
"John chose red; Sarah, blue." (Sarah [chose] blue)
6. Conjunctions
Join clauses or sentences. Formal vs. informal choices matter.
"The project ended; moreover, the budget was exhausted." (moreover = formal addition)

Linking Words: Register & Use

Function Informal Formal / Academic
Addition and, also, plus furthermore, moreover, in addition
Contrast but, though, still however, nevertheless, yet
Cause because, so therefore, consequently, as a result
Concession but, even though although, albeit, whereas
Sequence then, next, finally subsequently, henceforth, in conclusion

Practice: Text Improvement

Original (Choppy)
"The project started in January. It faced budget cuts in March. The team worked late. They completed it on time anyway. The outcome was successful. It boosted company morale."
Improved (Cohesive)
"The project, which started in January, faced budget cuts in March. Despite this setback, the team worked late and completed it on time. This achievement boosted company morale considerably."
SPEAK (4 mins)
Tell me about a professional challenge you faced. Use linking words naturally—try "however," "as a result," and "nevertheless" to show the flow of what happened and how you solved it. Speak like you're explaining to a colleague, not reading.
Don't prepare a script. Just speak. If you hesitate, that's normal.

Written vs. Spoken Grammar: Key Differences

The same person doesn't speak like they write. B2 means knowing which grammar is right for which context.

Six Differences You Need to Know

1. Formal Articles

Writing: "The data indicates..." (definite article)

Speaking: "Data shows..." (often dropped in casual speech)

2. Contractions

Writing: "It is clear that..." (full form)

Speaking: "It's clear that..." (contracted)

3. Relative Clauses

Writing: "The report which was released..." (full clause)

Speaking: "The report that came out..." (simpler, conversational)

4. Prepositions at End

Writing: "This is a question to which we..." (formal)

Speaking: "This is something we need to..." (ends with preposition—natural)

5. Ellipsis & Omission

Writing: "She attended; he did not." (formal, shows contrast)

Speaking: "She went. He didn't." (simple and clear)

6. Fronting & Inversion

Writing: "Important to note is the rise in demand." (emphasis)

Speaking: "What's important is that demand went up." (natural flow)

Punctuation: Colons & Semicolons

These are written-only—speech has no colons or semicolons. Understanding them improves your writing clarity.

Punctuation When to Use Example
Colon : Introduces a list, explanation, or quote. Signals "here's what I mean." "Three factors matter: cost, quality, timing."
Semicolon ; Joins two related independent clauses without a conjunction. Stronger than a comma, weaker than a full stop. "Sales dropped; profit margins fell too."
Colon: Introduces a List
"The proposal has three strengths: it's cost-effective, scalable, and sustainable."
Semicolon: Links Related Ideas
"The economy expanded; unemployment remained stable despite the growth."
Wrong Use ❌
"The reasons are: training, time, and resources." (Don't use a colon before a list if the clause before isn't complete. Say "The reasons are training, time, and resources." instead.)

Better: "We need three things: training, time, and resources."

Phrasal Verbs: Business & Academic

B2 students know common phrasal verbs. Advanced students learn multiple meanings and register shifts.

Set up
1. Create / establish (business)
"We set up the new office."

2. Arrange (meeting)
"I'll set up a call with them."
Bring in
1. Generate (money, revenue)
"The campaign brought in 500k."

2. Introduce (person, idea)
"Let's bring in a consultant."
Carry out
1. Perform (research, task)
"We carried out a survey."

2. Execute (plan)
"The plan was carried out."
Come across
1. Find / discover (information)
"I came across useful data."

2. Seem / appear (to others)
"She comes across as confident."
Deal with
1. Handle / manage (problem)
"I'll deal with the issue."

2. Discuss (topic)
"The chapter deals with ethics."
Look into
1. Investigate (matter)
"I'll look into this further."

2. Research (subject)
"We need to look into the options."
SPEAK (3 mins)
Describe a work project—something you set up, brought in, or dealt with. Speak naturally. Use at least two phrasal verbs. Don't worry about formal grammar—just sound like yourself.
This is conversational speech, not an essay. Natural rhythm matters more than perfection.

Writing Practice: Formal Register

Below are informal sentences. Rewrite them in formal academic style using the structures you've learned.

Challenge 1: Quantity Expressions

Rewrite: "Loads of data shows climate change is real."
Sample answer: "A considerable amount of data demonstrates that climate change is real." OR "Substantial evidence indicates that climate change is real."
Rewrite: "Tons of people think social media is bad."
Sample answer: "A number of studies suggest that social media has negative effects." OR "A great deal of research points to the drawbacks of social media."

Challenge 2: Linking & Cohesion

Paragraph (Choppy)
"The company spent money on training. Workers became more skilled. Productivity rose. Management was pleased. They invested more next year."
Improve it: Rewrite with linking words, reference pronouns, or cohesive devices.
Sample: "After investing in training, the company saw workers become more skilled. Consequently, productivity rose, pleasing management so much that they committed additional funds the following year." (Added "Consequently," removed repeated "The company," used "they" and "that," created flow.)

Challenge 3: Punctuation

Correct it: "The plan includes three parts. Budget allocation, timeline, and risk management."
Fixed: "The plan includes three parts: budget allocation, timeline, and risk management." (Use a colon before a list that follows an independent clause.)
Correct it: "The data arrived late. However, the analysis was still thorough."
Hint: Both are correct as is (comma + however at sentence start). You could also write: "The data arrived late; however, the analysis was still thorough." (Semicolon strengthens the connection.)

Speaking Practice: Naturalness & Flow

SPEAK (5 mins)
Choose one:

A) Describe a recent professional decision. Explain what led to it (cause), what you did (action), and the result. Use "as a result," "consequently," or "however."

B) Discuss an industry trend or problem you know about. Explain it as if you're talking to a colleague—no formal lecture tone. Use at least three phrasal verbs naturally (set up, deal with, look into, bring in, etc.).
Time yourself. Aim for fluency over perfection. Native speakers hesitate too.

Inline Feedback Checklist

After you speak, check yourself against this:

What Did You Learn? Consolidation

The Summary: Four Key Takeaways

Quantity Expressions Shift Register

"Loads of" is informal; "a great deal of" is formal. Choose based on context (speech vs. writing). "A number of" only works with countable nouns.

Whole / Entire / All of Have Slight Differences

"Whole" and "entire" are adjectives. "All of" is a prepositional phrase, often used with pronouns (all of us) or specific noun phrases (all of the data).

Cohesion Requires Six Tools

Reference pronouns (this, it, they), substitution (one, do so), linking words (however, moreover), lexical chains, ellipsis, and conjunctions connect ideas across sentences and paragraphs.

Written Grammar ≠ Spoken Grammar

Writing uses full forms, formal connectors, colons, and semicolons. Speech uses contractions, simpler clauses, prepositions at the end, and natural rhythm. Learn both.

Phrasal Verbs Recap: 6 with Multiple Meanings

Phrasal Verb Meaning 1 Meaning 2
Set up Create / establish Arrange (meeting)
Bring in Generate (revenue) Introduce (person)
Carry out Perform (task) Execute (plan)
Come across Discover (information) Seem / appear
Deal with Handle (problem) Discuss (topic)
Look into Investigate Research

Final Check: Can You...?

...explain when to use "all of" vs. "all" with no explanation from me?
Yes, if you can say: "All goes before nouns (all students), but all of goes before pronouns or specific phrases (all of them, all of the data)."
...rewrite an informal sentence using a formal quantity expression?
Yes, if you can replace "tons of" with "a considerable amount of" or "a great deal of" in context.
...identify at least two cohesive devices in a paragraph and say what they do?
Yes, if you can spot linking words (however), reference pronouns (this), or repeated key words and explain how they connect ideas.
...write a sentence with a colon correctly and a sentence with a semicolon correctly?
Yes, if you write: "Three things matter: time, money, effort." AND "Sales fell; profit margins improved." Both are punctually correct.
REFLECT (2 mins)
What part of this lesson felt most useful? Was it the formal expressions, the linking words, the phrasal verbs, or something else? What's one thing you'll try to use in your next email or conversation?
This is for you—no performance. Just think out loud.

Recall Zone: Previous Content

Without checking anything, can you answer these? They pull from B2 grammar you've learned before.

What are three ways to express future certainty vs. possibility in English?
Certainty: will, going to, present continuous (I'm leaving tomorrow)
Possibility: might, could, may
Different grammar, same basic idea: future time.
What's the difference between "I used to live there" and "I lived there"?
Used to: Repeated habit or state in the past (and now it's different)
Past simple: Just states a past fact (no implication about now)
Name three modal verbs and what grammatical task each does (obligation, advice, possibility, etc.).
Must / Have to: Obligation / necessity
Should / Ought to: Advice / recommendation
May / Could / Might: Possibility
What's the Present Perfect used for? Give two examples.
Experience (ever): "Have you ever travelled to Asia?"
Recent past (just): "I've just finished the report."
Result in present: "She's lost her keys."

Extension: Push Your Knowledge

Challenge 1: Register Shift in Context

You're writing three documents. Rewrite the same idea in each style:

Email to a friend (informal)
"I've been dealing with loads of work lately."
Professional email (neutral)
"I've been dealing with a lot of work lately."
Academic essay (formal)
"I have been managing a considerable workload."

Challenge 2: Build a Cohesive Paragraph

Choppy (6 sentences, no flow)
"The policy was announced in March. Employees reacted negatively. Management didn't expect resistance. A committee was formed. The committee interviewed staff. They revised the policy."
Rewrite using cohesion techniques: Combine ideas, add linking words, use pronouns and substitution.
Sample: "The policy announced in March met unexpected resistance from employees. Management had not anticipated this reaction; consequently, they formed a committee to address concerns. After interviewing staff, it was revised accordingly." (Used "this" to refer back, "consequently" to link ideas, omitted repeated subjects, and combined sentences.)

Challenge 3: Phrasal Verbs in Context

Use all six phrasal verbs in one narrative: Set up, bring in, carry out, come across, deal with, look into
Example: "When we set up the new team, we brought in an external consultant. She carried out an analysis and came across some unexpected findings. Rather than trying to deal with them alone, we decided to look into solutions collaboratively." (All six phrasal verbs; sounds natural; academic tone.)

Where Next?

To deepen your mastery:

FINAL SPEAK (3 mins)
Bring it all together. Tell me about a professional goal you have. Use at least one formal quantity expression, one linking word, and one phrasal verb naturally in your explanation. Don't plan—just speak.
This is the final test of flow and naturalness. You've learned the grammar. Now show you can use it without thinking.