C1 | Grammar Focus
Before we dig in, tell me:
🎙 Speak: Take 2 minutes. No notes.
At C1, your grammar is nearly perfect already. This lesson isn't about fixing mistakes — it's about efficiency and control.
Compare:
"The letter which was written by her arrived yesterday. She had enclosed a photograph that showed her new house."
"The letter written by her arrived yesterday, which surprised everyone. Enclosed was a photograph showing her new house."
Notice: The C1 version is tighter, more sophisticated. Same meaning — but fewer words, stronger rhythm. That's what we're working on today.
Instead of writing "The man who was standing at the door," you can compress it to "The man standing at the door." You're replacing the relative clause with a participle phrase.
Two patterns:
Reduced clauses create style and flow. They sound more natural in formal writing and more economical in speech. You're also showing that you understand which parts of a sentence can be compressed — that's a C1 skill.
Normally, 'which' refers to a single noun. But at C1, you can use 'which' to refer to an entire preceding clause or idea. This requires a non-defining relative clause (with commas).
In each case, 'which' doesn't refer to one noun — it refers to the entire idea that came before it. This adds sophistication because you're commenting on the whole situation, not just one element.
At B2, you learn that 'which' refers to nouns. True. But at C1, you discover the exception: non-defining 'which' can refer to an entire situation, revealing a more complex way of building ideas. This is a hallmark of sophisticated writing.
'What' = "the thing that" or "the things that." It combines the antecedent and relative pronoun into one word — a very efficient structure.
Notice: 'What' clauses can be the subject of the sentence ("What surprised me...") or part of the complement structure. This flexibility is very useful for sophisticated speech and writing.
'What' clauses let you emphasize or highlight what you're saying. "What worries me is..." puts the focus directly on what you're concerned about. At C1, this is a natural, frequent pattern.
Here's a passage using all three techniques. Watch how they work together:
"The reforms introduced by the government last year have had mixed results. What nobody predicted was the impact on rural communities. The officials making these decisions often lack experience in agriculture, which explains the disconnect. The farmers most affected by these changes, struggling with new regulations, are now demanding a review. What they need is not more bureaucracy but genuine consultation."
Key moves:
• "What nobody predicted" — 'what' clause as subject
• "which explains the disconnect" — 'which' referring to whole situation
• "struggling with new regulations" — reduced relative (present participle)
• "What they need" — 'what' clause as object/complement
🎙 Speak: What do you notice about the rhythm of this passage? Why is it more effective than using full relative clauses everywhere?
I'll give you a sentence with a full relative clause. You tell me how to reduce it. I'll ask questions to guide you.
Sentence: "The report which was submitted on Friday revealed some concerning patterns."
🎙 How would you shorten this? What changes?
Process:
1. The relative clause is passive ("which was submitted"). So we use the past participle.
2. Remove the relative pronoun and verb: "which was" → gone
3. Keep the participle: "The report submitted on Friday revealed some concerning patterns."
What changed? The sentence is shorter, tighter. The meaning stays the same, but it flows better.
Another one: "The candidates who applied for this position showed impressive credentials."
🎙 What participle would you use? Why?
Reduced: "The candidates applying for this position showed impressive credentials."
Why present participle? Because the clause is active ("who applied") — the candidates are doing the applying.
Rewrite each sentence using a reduced relative clause. Type your answer, then reveal to check.
1. The research which was conducted over five years shows clear trends.
Suggested: "The research conducted over five years shows clear trends."
Feedback: You've removed the relative pronoun and passive verb. Perfect. The meaning is identical, but the sentence is tighter.
2. The students who study regularly tend to retain more information.
Suggested: "The students studying regularly tend to retain more information."
Feedback: You've changed the active relative clause to a present participle. Good work. This reads much more naturally.
3. The opportunities which are available in the tech sector are growing rapidly.
Suggested: "The opportunities available in the tech sector are growing rapidly."
Feedback: You've condensed a passive clause into a simple adjective-like participle. This is the most economical version.
Complete each sentence with a non-defining 'which' clause that refers to the whole preceding situation.
1. The company announced layoffs during the earnings call, which...
Possible completions:
The 'which' refers to the whole situation (announcement + layoffs), not one noun.
2. She rejected the job offer without explanation, which...
Possible completions:
Create sentences using 'what' as a relative pronoun. Start with the prompts provided.
1. What bothers me about this proposal is...
Possible answers:
Here, 'what' introduces the subject of the sentence, allowing you to emphasize what you're highlighting.
2. What we discovered during the audit...
Possible completions:
Below is a paragraph written at B2 level. Your job: rewrite it using reduced relatives, 'which' for whole clauses, and 'what' clauses — to elevate it to C1. Aim for sophistication without losing clarity.
Original (B2):
"The regulations which were introduced last year have created significant challenges for small businesses. The business owners who are affected by these rules say that they lack clarity. Many of them have had to hire consultants, which has increased their costs. The support that they need most is clear guidance from government officials. The companies which have managed to adapt are the ones that have invested in training."
🎙 Before you write: Tell me — which sentences would benefit most from reduction? Which could use 'which' for whole clauses? Where could 'what' work?
Possible C1 version:
"The regulations introduced last year have created significant challenges for small businesses. The business owners affected by these rules cite a lack of clarity, which has forced many to hire expensive consultants. What they need most is straightforward guidance from government officials — something largely absent. The companies adapting successfully are those that invested in staff training, which suggests that proactive investment is the key differentiator."
Key changes:
🎙 Speak for 2 minutes: Explain the differences between your version and the C1 sample. What sounds more sophisticated? Why? How do the reductions change the feel of the paragraph?
Below are excerpts from published sources — academic writing, journalism, business communication. Identify which techniques they use and discuss why those choices work in that context.
"The reforms, implemented over three years, have delivered mixed results."
— Business report
🎙 What technique is used here? Why might the writer have chosen this form?
"Unemployment fell unexpectedly, which surprised economists and forced a revision of growth forecasts."
— Economics report
🎙 Why use 'which' for the whole clause here instead of 'this' or creating a new sentence?
"What distinguishes this approach from others is its focus on user experience rather than technical features."
— Technology article
🎙 How does 'what' help the writer emphasize the key point? Would "The thing that distinguishes..." be better or worse?
Click on cards that interest you. Speak for about 90 seconds on each.
For each sentence, identify which advanced relative technique could apply. Then rewrite using that technique. Sometimes there's more than one valid approach.
| Sentence | Technique? | Your Version |
|---|---|---|
| 1. The software which was designed for mobile users has dominated the market. | Reduced past participle? | |
| 2. The project failed, and this surprised nobody. | Which for whole clause? | |
| 3. The thing that concerns me is the budget. | What clause? | |
| 4. The team that were chosen for this task are the most experienced. | Reduced present participle? | |
| 5. She graduated with distinction, and this opened many doors. | Which for whole clause? |
1. "The software designed for mobile users has dominated the market."
2. "The project failed, which surprised nobody." (Combines two ideas using 'which' for the whole preceding clause.)
3. "What concerns me is the budget." (Cleaner and more direct than "the thing that concerns me.")
4. "The team chosen for this task are the most experienced." (Past participle, passive meaning.)
5. "She graduated with distinction, which opened many doors." (Again, 'which' captures the entire situation.)
Before we wrap up, a quick recall question from earlier lessons:
🎙 Speak: Answer both from memory, no notes. Then tell me — how do your answers connect to what you learned about sophisticated relative clauses?
Spend 3-4 minutes answering these. Your answers help shape the next lesson.
1. Which of the three techniques (reduced relatives, 'which' for whole clauses, 'what' clauses) felt most natural to you? Which was hardest?
2. Can you imagine using these structures in your own writing or speaking? When and where?
3. What helped you most during this lesson? Was it the examples, the practice tasks, the discussion, or something else?
4. What's one thing you'd like to practise more before moving on?
You now have three powerful tools for making your English more sophisticated:
These are not rules to memorize — they're tools to practise and make your own. The next time you write or speak at length, notice where these structures could enhance what you're saying.