Today: You'll develop sophisticated evaluative language and understand how advanced speakers and writers select between gerunds and infinitives for rhetorical precision — so you can craft nuanced academic and professional discourse.
What do you already know?
Let's see what comes to mind. Don't worry about perfect answers — just write what you remember:
1. Think of a sentence where you disagree with something. How did you express your disagreement? Write it down.
2. When you're not sure about something, how do you soften your statement in English? Give me one example.
3. What's the difference (if any) between: "I enjoy reading books" and "I enjoy to read books"?
Why this matters
At C2, evaluative language separates competent speakers from sophisticated ones. It's how you:
Signal certainty precisely — not just "true" or "false", but "arguably", "conceivably", "purportedly" (the modal game)
Argue without dogmatism — express a strong position while acknowledging alternative views
Choose gerunds vs infinitives strategically — each carries different meaning and tone in academic/professional writing
These choices mark you as someone who thinks in shades of grey, not black and white. That's C2.
Evaluative & Stance Adverbs
What makes language "evaluative"?
Evaluative language judges, appraises, or signals the speaker's certainty about a claim. At C2, this gets subtle.
The Certainty Spectrum
These adverbs signal how confident you are — not about facts, but about your position on them:
CERTAINTY LEVEL
ADVERB
MEANING / USE
Factual claim
Undoubtedly, Certainly, Definitely
You stand behind the fact completely
Strong position
Arguably, Substantially, Demonstrably
You can defend it with evidence, but it's still an argument
Qualified position
Conceivably, Possibly, Ostensibly
Intellectually sound, but you acknowledge alternatives
Report without judgment
Purportedly, Allegedly, Reputedly
You're reporting what's claimed, not endorsing it
Examples in Context
Undoubtedly
"The pandemic undoubtedly accelerated digital transformation in education."
You're stating a fact no one disputes.
Arguably
"The pandemic is arguably the most significant disruption to global labour markets in the past century."
You're making a strong claim, but you know others might counter it. Still defensible.
Conceivably
"Conceivably, remote work could become the default in knowledge industries within a decade."
Intellectually possible, but you're not betting your reputation on it.
Purportedly
"The report purportedly demonstrates that AI training uses massive amounts of water."
You're reporting a claim. You haven't verified it yourself.
Tone Matters: Evaluative Adjectives
Evaluative adjectives judge qualities. They carry stance:
ADJECTIVE TYPE
EXAMPLES
EFFECT
Positive evaluations
Insightful, Compelling, Rigorous, Elegant
Signal approval; presume shared standards
Negative evaluations
Spurious, Incoherent, Reductive, Fraught
Signal criticism; often in academic debate
Neutral descriptors (NOT evaluative)
Large, Frequent, Simple, Old
Describe properties, not quality
Context Matters
Evaluative (judges quality)
"Her analysis is remarkably insightful — she identifies the core tension most commentators miss."
You're endorsing her intellectual contribution.
Evaluative (judges negatively)
"The argument is circular and reductive — it collapses two distinct phenomena into one."
You're critiquing the logical structure.
I DO, WE DO, YOU DO
I DO: Teacher Models
Watch how these sentences are constructed and listen to the reasoning:
Model 1: Expressing Uncertainty Without Appearing Weak
Bad version: "AI regulation might be necessary."
Why it's weak: "Might" is too tentative. It sounds like you haven't thought it through.
C2 version: "Arguably, effective AI regulation will prove essential, despite conceivable implementation challenges."
Why it works: "Arguably" signals this is a defended position. "Conceivable implementation challenges" acknowledges real obstacles WITHOUT backing away from your main claim. You've elevated the discussion to the level of trade-offs, not uncertainty.
Model 2: Using Evaluative Adjectives in Academic Context
Weak: "The study found something important about climate migration."
C2 version: "The study offers a compelling and methodologically rigorous analysis of climate-driven migration patterns."
Why it works: "Compelling" = you judge its value. "Methodologically rigorous" = you evaluate its scientific approach. These signal you're not just summarising — you're assessing.
WE DO: Build Together
I'll start these sentences, and you complete them:
1. "The conference demonstrated that virtual work is arguably ___."Click to see one possibility
Suggested completion: "...arguably here to stay, despite persistent productivity concerns."
Why this works: "Arguably" lets you make a strong claim while "despite" signals you're aware of counterarguments. You're balanced and intellectually honest.
2. "The committee's proposal is conceivably effective, though ___."Click to see one possibility
Suggested completion: "...though implementation would likely prove challenging in under-resourced contexts."
Why this works: "Conceivably" = intellectually sound idea. "Though" = you've identified a real limitation. This is how C2 speakers balance optimism and realism.
3. "His research is rigorous but ___" (use a negative evaluative adjective).Click to see one possibility
Suggested completion: "...rigorous but rather reductive in its treatment of cultural nuance."
Why this works: You're not dismissing the work. "Rigorous" is genuine praise. "Reductive" is a specific, technical critique. This is how scholars critique each other — with respect.
YOU DO: Produce Independently
Now you complete these sentences in your own words:
4. "The proposal is arguably ___." (Make a strong claim about something you believe in.)
5. "While conceivably _____, the reality suggests _____." (Acknowledge one view, then your counter-position.)
Application: Real-World Discourse
Scenario: You're in an academic debate
A colleague claims that "Remote work is the future of knowledge work." You disagree, but you want to sound sophisticated, not dismissive.
Your task: Write a 150–200-word response.
Use at least one evaluative adverb and one evaluative adjective. Show that you can acknowledge their point while maintaining your position.
Reflection Questions
Did you use hedge language?
Look for words like "arguably", "conceivably", "arguably" — did you use at least one?
Did you acknowledge their position?
Do you show you understood their claim before countering it?
Is your tone professional?
Are you debating the idea, not the person?
Nuanced Gerund vs Infinitive Selection
Why this matters at C2
You probably learned: some verbs take gerunds, others take infinitives. At C2, you learn that the choice often carries pragmatic meaning.
The Reality: Lexical Restrictions, Not Just Meaning
At C2, you need to understand three layers:
LAYER 1: LEXICAL RESTRICTION
EXAMPLES
Verbs that ONLY take gerund (Not a meaning choice — it's grammatically fixed)
enjoy, appreciate, avoid, postpone, consider, admit, deny, finish "I enjoy reading" ✓ "I enjoy to read" ✗ (ungrammatical)
Verbs that ONLY take infinitive (Not a meaning choice — it's grammatically fixed)
want, need, hope, decide, agree, tend, fail, aim "I want to read" ✓ "I want reading" ✗ (ungrammatical)
LAYER 2: Meaning-Bearing Verbs (Limited Set)
Only a few verbs show real meaning differences — and these are verb-specific, not a clean semantic rule:
VERB
GERUND
INFINITIVE
remember
"I remember attending the conference." = Recalls a past event
"I must remember to attend the meeting." = Reminder about future
stop
"He stopped working at 5pm." = Ceased the activity
"He stopped to help her." = Paused in order to
try
"Try calling him." = Attempt the action
"I tried to open the door." = Attempted effort
regret
"I regret accepting the job." = Looking back on a completed action
"I regret to inform you..." = Formal announcement of unwelcome news
Where both forms are grammatically correct, the choice is often stylistic, not meaningful:
CONTEXT
EXAMPLES
REAL DIFFERENCE?
start / begin (Both gerund and infinitive are acceptable)
"She started learning French." "She started to learn French."
Minimal meaning difference. Infinitive sounds slightly more formal. Register, not semantics.
like / love (Infinitive is more common in modern English, gerund is also natural)
"I love reading novels." "I'd love to read that novel."
Both work. Infinitive often emphasises a specific future instance; gerund emphasises habitual pleasure. But this is TENDENCY, not law.
Collocation matters more than meaning
"I appreciate you helping" ✓ "I appreciate to help" ✗ but "I'd appreciate to see" sounds stiff (say "if you'd show me")
You're choosing based on what "sounds right" in that phrase — collocation, not semantic rule.
Real Examples: Where Form Matters
Lexical restriction: "advocate" + gerund
"I advocate teaching critical thinking from primary school."
This is fixed by the verb. "I advocate to teach" is ungrammatical. Same meaning result, but for grammatical reasons.
Different verb, different structure: "We should teach..."
"We should teach critical thinking from primary school."
Here, "should" governs infinitive. Not a choice between gerund and infinitive — it's a different structure entirely (modal + infinitive vs advocate + gerund).
Meaning-bearing: "regret" + gerund
"I regret not pursuing mathematics at university."
Looking back on a completed decision. The regret is about something that already happened.
Meaning-bearing: "regret" + infinitive (formal, specific use)
"I regret to inform you that the project has been cancelled."
This is a set phrase in formal contexts. You're announcing unwelcome news, not reflecting on a past action. Different register, different meaning.
Collocation over rule: "remember"
"I remember attending the conference" vs "I must remember to attend the meeting."
Both are meaning-bearing. Past recall vs future reminder. But other verbs don't have this distinction — they're locked to one form. This pattern is verb-specific.
Strategic Interleaved Practice
For each sentence, identify the constraint: Is this a lexical restriction, a meaning-bearing choice, or stylistic?
1. "The government should prioritise [reduce] carbon emissions."
Which form and why?Click to reveal
Answer: "...prioritise reducing carbon emissions." Why: LEXICAL RESTRICTION. "Prioritise" is a verb that only takes gerund. It's not a semantic choice — the infinitive form is ungrammatical. Same with: avoid, postpone, consider, recommend, advocate.
2. "The company has committed [implement] the recommendations by Q2."
Which form and why?Click to reveal
Answer: "...committed to implement the recommendations..." Why: LEXICAL RESTRICTION. "Commit to" takes the infinitive (or gerund after "to"). "Committed to implementing" also works. The pattern is verb-specific collocation, not a meaning choice.
3. "She appreciates [collaborate] with researchers from different disciplines."
Which form and why?Click to reveal
Answer: "...appreciates collaborating with researchers..." Why: LEXICAL RESTRICTION. "Appreciate" is a gerund-only verb. No choice here. "Appreciates to collaborate" is ungrammatical. Also: enjoy, avoid, deny, admit, consider.
4. "She would prefer [collaborate] with a smaller team on this project."
Which form and why?Click to reveal
Answer: "...prefer to collaborate with a smaller team..." Why: LEXICAL RESTRICTION. "Prefer" takes infinitive. No choice. "Prefer collaborating" is ungrammatical. Also: want, need, hope, decide, agree, tend, aim, fail.
Recall Zone: Build Your Memory
Before looking at the answers below, try to recall from earlier in this lesson or from your own knowledge:
Spaced Retrieval Questions
1. What's the difference between expressing a claim with "It's true that..." vs "Arguably..."?
Reveal answerTry first
"It's true that..." = You're stating a fact. "Arguably..." = You're making a defended position; you know there are alternative views, but you can argue for yours. "Arguably" signals intellectual honesty — you're not claiming certainty, just validity.
2. When would you use "purportedly" instead of "ostensibly" or "reputedly"?
Reveal answerTry first
All three distance you from a claim. "Purportedly" emphasises you're reporting what's claimed, not endorsing it. "Reputedly" focuses on what people say. "Ostensibly" suggests an apparent but possibly false appearance. In practice, they overlap — choose based on what you want to emphasise about your distance from the claim.
3. I enjoy (read / reading). Why is one correct and the other isn't?
Reveal answerTry first
"I enjoy reading" (gerund) is the only correct form. This is a LEXICAL RESTRICTION — "enjoy" simply does not take the infinitive. It's not a semantic choice between habitual vs specific. The infinitive is ungrammatical. Same with: appreciate, avoid, admit, deny, postpone.
4. "The study demonstrates (effect / effecting) real change." Gerund or infinitive?
Reveal answerTry first
"The study demonstrates effecting real change" (gerund). This is a LEXICAL RESTRICTION. "Demonstrate" is a gerund-taking verb in this sense. "To effect" would be ungrammatical. The same happens with: show, reveal, prove (in this context). The choice is constrained by the verb's properties, not by a semantic rule about habitual vs specific.
Final Retrieval & Metacognition
Recall from Memory: No Cheating
Write down from memory:
What are three evaluative adverbs that signal a defended position (not a fact)? Give me the words and explain why you'd use them instead of "It's true that..."
Complete this rule in your own words:
"When I choose a gerund instead of an infinitive, I'm usually emphasising..." (or "...I'm signalling that...").
Create one original sentence:
Write a sentence where you express disagreement with something, using evaluative language. Show me you can sound sophisticated, not dismissive.
Metacognition: What Helped You Learn?
Seeing the examples
Did real sentences from academic/professional contexts help cement the patterns?
Completing sentences together
Did co-constructing (We Do) help you understand the reasoning?
The comparison table
Did seeing gerund vs infinitive side-by-side clarify the pragmatic difference?
Writing your own examples
Did producing your own sentences deepen understanding?
I Can...
By the end of this lesson, you can:
Use evaluative adverbs (arguably, conceivably, purportedly) to signal the strength and certainty of my claims in academic discourse
Employ evaluative adjectives (rigorous, compelling, reductive) to appraise ideas and arguments while maintaining an intellectual tone
Understand that gerund vs infinitive choice depends on three factors: (1) lexical restrictions (most verbs take ONLY one form), (2) rare meaning-bearing differences (verb-specific), and (3) stylistic/collocation preferences (register matters more than semantics)
Recognize that the "habitual/specific" binary is an oversimplification — most verbs are not truly optional; only a few show real meaning differences
Write balanced arguments that acknowledge alternative positions without weakening my own
Craft sentences that mark me as a sophisticated speaker/writer — someone who thinks in nuance, not absolutes
3-Minute Reflection Timer
Take three minutes to reflect: Which of the four skills above feels most natural to you? Which one will you need to practise more?