Think Inside the Box · The Toolbox

63 Tools for Thinking

The grids, pyramids, loops, curves and diagrams that people use to think clearly — in business, psychology, medicine, schools, science, the army and everyday life.

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What are these tools called? There is no single official name. People call them frameworks or models. A grid is a matrix (plural: matrices), and a four-box grid is a 2×2 (say “two-by-two”). Researchers who sort people or things into types call the result a typology.

How many are there? Nobody knows — hundreds, and new ones appear every year. Most collections choose the best 50 to 80. This toolbox holds the ones you are most likely to meet, in six families, grouped by their shape. The shape tells you how the tool thinks: a grid sorts, a pyramid ranks, a loop repeats, a curve shows a pattern, a diagram connects, and a checklist makes sure nothing is forgotten.

Are they only for business? No. Use the buttons below to see the same kind of thinking in psychology, medicine, education, the military and politics. Tools marked lesson have a full lesson.

Grids & matricesPyramids & laddersCycles & loopsCurves & rulesDiagrams & mapsChecklists & canvases

Grids & matrices 18

Take two questions, cross them, and every item falls into a box. The most popular shape of all.

HR use from the 1970s–90s, adapted from the GE–McKinsey matrix
Sorts employees by performance now and potential for the future.
Business
Named after Dwight Eisenhower (1954); made famous by Stephen Covey (1989)
Sorts tasks by urgent / not urgent and important / not important.
Everyday life Business
Joseph Luft & Harrington Ingham, 1955
Four “panes” of what you and others know about you.
Psychology Education
Flood & Dresher at RAND, 1950; story by Albert Tucker
A payoff grid showing why two sensible people may both refuse to cooperate.
Science Politics & society Business
Boston Consulting Group, 1970
Stars, cash cows, question marks and dogs: sorts a company's products.
Business
The GE–McKinsey Matrix
General Electric & McKinsey, early 1970s
A nine-box grid for deciding which businesses to invest in.
Business
The Ansoff Matrix
Igor Ansoff, 1957
Four ways to grow: old or new products, in old or new markets.
Business
Engineering and safety practice
Likelihood × impact: how worried should we be about each risk?
Medicine & health Business Science
The Stakeholder Grid
Aubrey Mendelow, 1991
Power × interest: who to keep close, who to keep informed.
Business Politics & society
The Skill–Will Matrix
Coaching practice (Max Landsberg, 1996)
Ability × motivation: tells a manager whether to guide, push, excite or delegate.
Business Education
The Impact–Effort Matrix
Project-management practice
Quick wins, big projects, fill-ins and time-wasters.
Business Everyday life
The Parenting Styles Model
Diana Baumrind, 1966; Maccoby & Martin, 1983
Warmth × control: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, neglectful.
Psychology Education
John Berry, 1970s–80s
How migrants live between two cultures: integration, assimilation, separation, marginalisation.
Psychology Politics & society
The Conflict Modes Grid
Kenneth Thomas & Ralph Kilmann, 1974
Five ways people handle conflict, from avoiding to collaborating.
Psychology Business
The Confusion Matrix
Statistics and medical testing
True and false positives and negatives: how good is a test?
Medicine & health Science Technology
The Punnett Square
Reginald Punnett, c. 1905
Predicts the genes a child may inherit from two parents.
Science Education
The “Known Unknowns” Grid
Popularised by Donald Rumsfeld, 2002
What we know, what we know we don't know — and what we don't even know we don't know.
Military & security Politics & society
The Political Compass
Popular online from 2001
Places political views on left–right and freedom–authority axes.
Politics & society

Pyramids & ladders 8

Levels stacked on top of each other: the bottom must be solid before you climb.

Abraham Maslow, 1943 (the pyramid drawing came later)
Human needs in five levels, from food and safety up to growth.
Psychology Business Education
Benjamin Bloom and colleagues, 1956; revised 2001
Levels of thinking, from remembering up to creating.
Education
The Minto Pyramid
Barbara Minto, McKinsey, 1970s
Put the answer first, then the reasons, then the details.
Business Education
Sweden, 1974; USA, 1992
What to eat most and least — since replaced by plates in many countries.
Medicine & health Everyday life
The Ladder of Inference
Chris Argyris, 1970s
How we climb from facts to assumptions to beliefs — often too fast.
Psychology Business
Arnstein's Ladder of Participation
Sherry Arnstein, 1969
Eight rungs of how much real power citizens have.
Politics & society
The Hierarchy of Controls
Workplace safety practice
Remove the danger first; protective clothing comes last.
Medicine & health Science
The Kirkpatrick Model
Donald Kirkpatrick, 1959
Four levels for judging whether training worked.
Education Business

Cycles & loops 9

Steps that come round again. The point is not to finish but to keep turning — faster and better.

John Boyd, US Air Force, 1970s–80s
Observe, orient, decide, act — faster than your opponent.
Military & security Business Everyday life
Walter Shewhart & W. Edwards Deming, 1930s–50s
The improvement cycle behind Japan's quality revolution.
Quality & engineering Business Medicine & health
David Kolb, 1984
Experience, reflect, think, try again.
Education
Gibbs' Reflective Cycle
Graham Gibbs, 1988
Six questions for learning from an experience — loved by nurses and teachers.
Education Medicine & health
The Scientific Method
Developed over centuries
Question, hypothesis, test, conclude, repeat.
Science Education
The Design Thinking Cycle
Stanford d.school & IDEO, 2000s
Empathise, define, ideate, prototype, test.
Business Technology
The Product Life Cycle
Marketing theory, 1950s–60s
Introduction, growth, maturity, decline.
Business
The Stages of Change
Prochaska & DiClemente, late 1970s
How people change habits — from not ready to maintaining.
Medicine & health Psychology
Bruce Tuckman, 1965 (fifth stage 1977)
Forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning.
Business Psychology Education

Curves & rules 8

A line on a chart that shows a pattern — and a rule of thumb that grows out of it.

Vilfredo Pareto, 1896; named by Joseph Juran, 1940s
A few causes produce most of the results.
Business Quality & engineering Everyday life
Everett Rogers, 1962 (from a 1943 corn study)
How new ideas spread: innovators, early adopters… laggards.
Politics & society Business Technology Medicine & health
Gartner (Jackie Fenn), 1995
Excitement, disappointment, then real use — the path of new technology.
Technology Business
The Forgetting Curve
Hermann Ebbinghaus, 1885
How fast we forget — and why review works.
Education Psychology
The Yerkes–Dodson Curve
Robert Yerkes & John Dodson, 1908
A little pressure helps performance; too much hurts it.
Psychology Everyday life
The Bell Curve
Carl Friedrich Gauss and others, 1800s
Most results sit in the middle; few sit at the extremes.
Science Education
The Experience Curve
Boston Consulting Group, 1960s
Each time total production doubles, costs fall by a steady amount.
Business
The S-Curve
Technology and growth studies
Slow start, fast growth, then a plateau.
Technology Business Science

Diagrams & maps 9

Boxes, branches and arrows that show how things connect — causes, steps, overlaps.

Kaoru Ishikawa, 1943
Maps every possible cause of one problem.
Quality & engineering Medicine & health Business
John Venn, 1880
Overlapping circles showing what things share.
Science Education Everyday life
Ikigai
Western diagram (2010s) inspired by a Japanese word
Where what you love, what you're good at, what the world needs and what pays overlap.
Everyday life Psychology
Popularised by Tony Buzan, 1974
Ideas branching out from one central topic.
Education Everyday life
The Flowchart
Frank & Lillian Gilbreth, 1921
Boxes and arrows showing each step and decision in a process.
Quality & engineering Technology Business
The Decision Tree
Statistics and decision science
Each branch is a choice or a chance, with its possible results.
Business Medicine & health Technology
Porter's Value Chain
Michael Porter, 1985
The chain of activities where a company adds value.
Business
Sakichi Toyoda / Toyota
Ask “why?” five times to reach the root cause.
Quality & engineering Business Everyday life
The Cynefin Framework
Dave Snowden, 1999
Is the situation clear, complicated, complex or chaotic? Each needs a different response.
Business Politics & society

Checklists & canvases 11

A set of headings that makes sure nothing is forgotten — often remembered as a short word.

Stanford Research Institute, 1960s (first called SOFT)
Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats.
Business Education Everyday life
PESTLE lesson
Grew from Francis Aguilar's ETPS, 1967
Political, economic, social, technological, legal, environmental forces.
Business Politics & society
Michael Porter, 1979
Five pressures that decide how profitable an industry can be.
Business
The McKinsey 7-S
Peters, Waterman & colleagues, c. 1980
Seven parts of an organisation that must fit together.
Business
The 4 Ps of Marketing
E. Jerome McCarthy, 1960
Product, price, place, promotion.
Business
SMART Goals
George Doran, 1981
Specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound.
Business Education Everyday life
The Business Model Canvas
Alexander Osterwalder, 2005–2010
Nine boxes that describe how any business makes money.
Business
Six Thinking Hats
Edward de Bono, 1985
Look at a problem six ways: facts, feelings, risks, benefits, ideas, process.
Business Education
AIDA
Attributed to Elias St. Elmo Lewis, 1898
Attention, interest, desire, action: the path of an advert.
Business
The Surgical Safety Checklist
World Health Organization, 2008
A short checklist that cut deaths and complications in operating theatres.
Medicine & health
ABCDE
Emergency medicine
Airway, breathing, circulation, disability, exposure — check in this order.
Medicine & health

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